During the transition of the 18th century, Dependent States represented a specific political arrangement where the supreme authority or suzerainty of the Mughal Emperor was acknowledged, yet internal autonomy was strictly retained. The Rajput States, including Jaipur, Jodhpur, and Udaipur, were the primary examples of this category. Among them, Jaipur stood out as a consistently loyal ally of the Mughals, particularly under the leadership of Sawai Jai Singh. Meanwhile, states like Jodhpur and Udaipur maintained a more complex position, carefully balancing their local independence with the strategic necessity of nominal Mughal allegiance.

The state of Bengal emerged as a premier successor state in 1717 under Murshid Quli Khan, who transitioned from the Mughal Diwan to the first Nawab. He revolutionized the region’s economy by replacing the Mughal Jagirdari system with the Malzamini (Mal Jasmani) system, which fostered a powerful new class of zamindars and served as a precursor to the British Permanent Settlement. He was succeeded by his son-in-law, Shuja-ud-Din (1727–1739), the 2nd Nawab, who expanded the administration by formally annexing Bihar. The 3rd Nawab, Sarfaraz Khan (1739–1740), had a brief and unstable reign that ended when he was killed in the Battle of Giria by Alivardi Khan. As the 4th Nawab (1740–1756), Alivardi Khan ascended via a military coup supported by the influential banking house of Jagat Seth. Under his rule, Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha became effectively sovereign as he ceased paying tributes to the Mughals, though this independence eventually collapsed following the Battle of Plassey in 1757.

Situated in the heart of the fertile Ganga plain, The state of Awadh was established in 1722 by Saadat Khan, who was honored with the title Burhan-ul-Mulk.

Hyderabad was founded in 1724 by Qilich Khan, better known by his title Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I, who established the long-standing Asaf Jah dynasty. His independence was solidified after he defeated the Mughal viceroy of the Deccan at the Battle of Shakar Kheda in 1724, effectively breaking away from central Mughal control. Although the Nizam established a powerful administrative framework in the south, his expansionist ambitions were checked by the Marathas; most notably, he was defeated by Peshwa Baji Rao I at the Battle of Palkhed in 1728. Despite this defeat, Hyderabad remained a premier political entity, acting as a critical power broker in the Deccan.

The Ahom Kingdom of Assam is distinguished by its fierce and successful resistance against imperial expansion, maintaining its independence for six centuries. A defining moment in their history was the Battle of Saraighat in 1671, where the Ahom general Lachit Borphukan led his forces to a decisive naval victory over the superior Mughal army. Through expert use of the Brahmaputra’s terrain and guerrilla tactics, the Ahoms effectively halted Mughal expansion into Northeast India. The kingdom successfully retained its autonomy through the height of the Mughal era and the subsequent regional turbulence, only losing its independence following the First Anglo-Burmese War. Their long reign finally concluded with the British annexation in 1826 under the terms of the Treaty of Yandabo.

The Sikh state in Punjab evolved from a peaceful religious movement into a formidable military power, primarily as a defensive response to repeated Mughal atrocities. This transformation was marked by key turning points: the execution of Guru Arjan in 1606 by Jahangir, which prompted Guru Hargobind to begin the process of militarization, and the execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur in 1675 for defending Hindu and human rights. In 1699, Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa, completing the community’s transition into a warrior-saint brotherhood. Following the Guru’s death, Banda Singh Bahadur led intense peasant uprisings (1708–1716) against Mughal authority. Eventually, the Sikhs organized themselves into 12 Misls (military confederacies) under local chiefs. This decentralized system provided the foundation for Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the Misldar of the Sukerchakia Misl, to unify the Punjab and establish the Sikh Empire in 1799.

The empire remained a sovereign power until the death of Ranjit Singh led to political instability, resulting in the Anglo-Sikh Wars. The First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46) broke out due to British expansionist interests and internal Sikh court intrigues, concluding with the Treaty of Lahore, which saw the Sikhs ceding significant territory. The Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49) was triggered by local rebellions in Multan and culminated in a decisive British victory. Following the Battle of Gujarat, the British annexed the Punjab in 1849 under Lord Dalhousie, ending the last major independent Indian kingdom.

The Maratha Empire rose to prominence in the Deccan under Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (coronated in 1674). Following the death of Shivaji’s sons—Sambhaji (executed by Aurangzeb) and Rajaram—the empire faced internal division. Rajaram’s widow, Tarabai, ruled in the name of her son Shivaji II, while Sambhaji’s son, Shahu, was released from Mughal custody by Bahadur Shah I. The ensuing civil war ended with Shahu’s victory; his recognition by the Mughals effectively turned the late Mughal emperors into puppet rulers for the Marathas in the Deccan.

The Peshwa Period (1713–1818)

The era of de facto rule by the Prime Ministers (Peshwas) began with Balaji Vishwanath, who made the position hereditary. However, it was under Peshwa Baji Rao I (1720–1740)—considered the greatest Maratha commander—that the empire truly expanded. He established the Maratha Confederacy, a decentralized system where powerful families were assigned independent territories:

• Peshwas at Pune
• Gaekwads at Baroda
• Bhosles at Nagpur
• Holkars at Indore
• Scindias at Gwalior

Baji Rao I asserted Maratha sovereignty through the collection of Chauth (25% tax) and Sardeshmukhi (additional 10% tax). His military record was impeccable, including the Battle of Palkhed (1728) against the Nizam, the Conquest of Delhi (1737), and the Battle of Vasai (1739), which expelled the Portuguese from Salsette.

Under Peshwa Balaji Bajirao (1740–1761), also known as Nana Saheb, the empire reached its territorial zenith, stretching from “Attock to Cuttack.” This period saw the Maratha invasion of Bengal by “Bargi” troops to extract Chauth. However, the expansion was halted by the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) against Ahmad Shah Abdali. Following the death of Chhatrapati Shahu in 1749, the Chhatrapatis became titular figureheads, with the Peshwas wielding absolute power from Pune.

The Maratha power eventually declined through a series of three Anglo-Maratha Wars, as the British East India Company sought to dismantle the Confederacy and establish supreme authority in India.

Unlike many regional states of the 18th century, Mysore had no historical roots in the Mughal administrative system. It was originally a part of the Vijayanagar Empire and asserted its independence following the empire’s decline after the Battle of Talikota. In 1565, it became a sovereign state under the Wodeyar Dynasty, which would rule the region for centuries.

Rise of Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan

By the mid-18th century, Mysore shifted from a quiet principality to a formidable military power. Hyder Ali, a soldier of fortune, overthrew the real power behind the Wodeyar throne (the Nanjaraj brothers) and became the de facto ruler. He was succeeded by his son, Tipu Sultan, known as the “Tiger of Mysore.” Under their leadership, Mysore became the most dangerous opponent to British expansion in the south which collapsed after 4 Angelo Mysore wars

The Afghans and Rohillas established themselves as a formidable political and military force in North India during the 18th century, carving out territories from the decaying Mughal Empire. The Rohilkhand kingdom was founded by Ali Muhammad Khan, encompassing the strategic region of Western UP situated between the Kumaon hills and the River Ganga. This emergence was accelerated by the vacuum left by the declining Mughals, particularly following the devastating invasion of Nadir Shah. Simultaneously, during the reign of Farrukhsiyar, Mohammad Khan Bangash established another Afghan stronghold at Farrukhabad, located east of Delhi.

The Rohillas were known for their pragmatic and fluid diplomacy, frequently shifting alliances between the Mughals, Marathas, and the Nawabs of Awadh to suit their immediate political survival. Their most significant impact on Indian history occurred during the Third Battle of Panipat (1761), where the Rohilla leader Najib-ud-Daulah played a crucial role as the primary local ally of Ahmad Shah Abdali. His support was instrumental in the Afghan victory over the Marathas, which fundamentally altered the power balance in North India.