Schools of Psychology – Founders and Associates

Schools or Systems of Psychology

1. The Founders (Fathers)

Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt
Functionalism William James
Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud
Behaviourism J. B. Watson
Gestalt Max Wertheimer
Cognitivism Miller & Jerome Bruner
Humanism Abraham Maslow
Constructivism Piaget & Vygotsky

2. Associated Psychologists

Structuralism

Wilhelm Wundt, Edward Bradford Titchener, Margaret Washburn
Functionalism

William James
Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud
Behaviourism

J. B. Watson
Gestalt

Max Wertheimer
Cognitivism

George Miller, Jerome Bruner
Humanism

Abraham Maslow
Constructivism

Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky

Other Mentions (Historical Context): Papalia and Olds

Forces of Psychology (मनोविज्ञान के बल)

Psychoanalysis

(मनोविश्लेषणवाद)

Behaviourism

(व्यवहारवाद)

Humanism

(मानवतावाद)

Key note: Symbol of Psychology Ψ

Category	Psychologist	Famous Theory or Work
Foundations	Wilhelm Wundt	Father of Psychology; First lab; Introspection.
Foundations	William James	Functionalism; Wrote “Principles of Psychology.”
Psychoanalysis	Sigmund Freud	The Unconscious; Id, Ego, Superego; Psychosexual stages.
	Carl Jung	Analytical Psychology; Collective Unconscious; Archetypes.
	Erik Erikson	Psychosocial Development (8 Stages across lifespan).
Behaviorism	Ivan Pavlov	Classical Conditioning (Learning via association).
	John B. Watson	Little Albert; Applied conditioning to human emotion.
	B.F. Skinner	Operant Conditioning (Reinforcement & Punishment).
Humanism	Abraham Maslow	Hierarchy of Needs (Path to Self-Actualization).
Humanism	Carl Rogers	Client-Centered Therapy; Unconditional Positive Regard.
Cognitive	Jean Piaget	Cognitive Development (4 Stages in children).
Cognitive	Lev Vygotsky	Sociocultural Theory; Zone of Proximal Development.
Social	Albert Bandura	Social Learning Theory; The Bobo Doll experiment.
	Stanley Milgram	Obedience Study (Authority vs. Conscience).
	Solomon Asch	Conformity Studies (Peer pressure in groups).
Intelligence	Howard Gardner	Multiple Intelligences (8 types like Musical, Logic, etc).

Educational Psychology: Schools of Thought & Structuralism

1. STRUCTARALISM

What is Structuralism?

Structuralism is regarded as the first school of psychology, focusing on the systematic study of the structure of the human mind. It treats psychology as the “science of consciousness” or the study of experience.

It attempts to identify the basic units or elements of consciousness.
It seeks to understand the combinations in which these mental elements occur.
It uses the analytical approach: breaking down complex experiences into simple components.

BRAIN → Hardware MIND → Software

Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920)

Founder: A German Professor primarily responsible for the evolution of this school.
Original Name: His ideas were first called “Voluntarism”.
Scientific Milestone: Established the world’s first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany (1879).
Primary Technique: Used Introspection (self-observation), where subjects report their mental experiences during exposure to stimuli.

Edward Bradford Titchener (1867–1927)

        The Student: A British-born student of Wundt at Cornell University who officially coined the term “Structuralism”.
Three Basic Elements: Proposed that consciousness is composed of Physical Sensations, Feelings, and Images (memories/dreams).
Quantification: Concluded that the mind consists of more than 30,000 separate sensations and feelings.
Banana Example: Perceiving a banana involves visual sensation (seeing), feelings (liking/disliking), and images (past memories).

    

3. Evaluation of Structuralism

Criticisms

Limited Scope: Fails to address motivation, individual differences, and abnormal behavior.
Unnatural Analysis: Breaking the mind into individual elements is often seen as untenable and unnatural.
Subjectivity: The Introspection method is not objective or reliable as reports vary between individuals.
Scientific Validity: Titchener himself eventually doubted if psychology could ever be a true science of behavior.

Merits & Contributions to Education

Independent Discipline: Established psychology as an organized discipline separate from philosophy.
Scientific Initiative: Provided the foundation for systematic observation and laboratory experimentation.
Methodological Value: Introspection remains a vital tool in Educational Psychology for extracting mental reports.

Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939)

Student of Wundt: Continued his research traditions.
Achievement: The first woman to earn a PhD in Psychology (1894).
Author: Wrote the influential book “The Animal Mind”.

Psychology Notes: Functionalism

2. Functionalism

Overview: William James (1842–1910)

Father of Psychology in USA: A pioneer of the functional school.
Approach: Adopted a biological approach, strongly influenced by Darwinian theory, anatomy, and medicine.
Philosophy: Declared that consciousness cannot be broken into elements; thoughts and perceptions are a continuous and flowing unity (a “stream of consciousness”).
Focus: Understanding the functions and activities of the mind—how it aids in adaptation to the environment—rather than just its structure.
Major Work: Published “The Principles of Psychology” in 1890.

Structuralism vs. Functionalism

STRUCTURALISM

Focus: Stimuli and the Structure of the Mind.

FUNCTIONALISM

Focus: Daily use of the mind and Brain Function.

Merits and Contributions to Education

Curriculum Functionality: Advocated that only things children can apply in everyday life should be taught.
Learner-Centred Approach: Influenced by John Dewey, shifting focus from subject matter to the actual needs of students.
Scientific Enquiry: Developed variety in research methods beyond introspection, including data collection and objective interpretation.
New Tools: Introduced valuable measurement devices like questionnaires, mental tests, and inventories.
Applied Research: Paved the way for practical problem-solving in educational psychology, integrating theory with practice.

Associated Psychologists of Functionalism

Consolidated by figures such as: John Dewey, James Rowland Angell, J.M. Cattell, Edward L. Thorndike, and R.S. Woodworth.

Behaviorism Study Notes

3. Behaviourism

I. Introduction

The Rise of Behaviorism: Founded by John B. Watson (1878–1950), this school of thought emerged as a reaction against structuralism and functionalism.
Rejection of Consciousness: Behaviorists concluded that consciousness is “absurd” because it cannot be seen, touched, or scientifically tested.
Core Philosophy: Psychology should be a science of behavior, focusing strictly on observable and measurable actions.
Tabula Rasa: John Locke (17th Century) proposed that a child’s mind is a “blank slate” or “Tabula Rasa”.

II. Key Concepts and Theoretical Models

Behaviorism views organisms as complex machines that respond to environmental stimuli.

1. The Stimulus-Response Framework

Stimulus (S): Anything that can trigger an action, such as the smell of food.
Response (R): The action or reaction taken following a stimulus.
The S-R Bond: Proposed by E. L. Thorndike, emphasizing the connection between stimulus and response.
The S-O-R Model: Proposed by Woodworth, adding the “Organism” (O) as a mediator.

2. Conditioning

The process of associating a behavior or habit with something to cause it to change.

Stimulus + Response = Conditioning

Classical Conditioning: Propagated by Ivan Pavlov; involves substituting stimuli, like a bell for meat.
Operant Conditioning: Emphasized by B. F. Skinner; focuses on learning through rewards and reinforcements.

III. Major Figures in Behaviorism

Figure	Key Contributions
John B. Watson	Conducted the “Little Albert” experiment; defined psychology as observable behavior.
Ivan Pavlov	Developed the theory of Classical Conditioning.
E. L. Thorndike	Known as the “Father of Educational Psychology”.
B. F. Skinner	Pioneer of Operant Conditioning and teaching machines.
John Locke	Philosopher who described the mind as a “blank slate”.

IV. Behavior Classification

Overt Behavior: Observable behavior that can be seen by an investigator.
Covert Behavior: Internal behavior (e.g., internal reactions).
Measurable Effects: Behaviorists measure heart rate and blood pressure changes instead of internal “feelings” of fear.

V. Merits and Contributions to Education

        Scientific Rigor: Replaced introspective measures with objective, scientific observation.
Environmental Influence: Shifted focus from heredity to the role of the environment in shaping children.
Behavior Modification: Introduced techniques for treating “abnormal” or “delinquent” individuals.
Vocabulary Shift: Discarded mentalistic terms like “soul” for stimulus, response, and conditioning.
Reinforcement: Advocated for rewards and reinforcement over punishment.
Instructional Innovation: Led to programmed learning, teaching machines, and computer-assisted instruction.

    

Gestalt Psychology Notes

4. Gestalt Psychology

1. Introduction and Origins

History: Emerged in Germany in the early 1900s as a reaction against structuralism and functionalism.
Etymology: “Gestalt” is a German word that translates to “configuration” or “an organized whole.”
Key Members:
- Max Wertheimer (1880–1943): Known as the Father and Founder of Gestalt Psychology.
- Wolfgang Kohler (1887–1967): Credited with the theory of “Insightful learning.”
- Kurt Koffka (1886–1941)
- Kurt Lewin (1890–1947)

2. Core Principles

Holistic Perception: Individuals perceive things as a “whole” rather than a collection of separate elements or constituents.
The Central Maxim: “The whole is different from the sum of its parts” (Aristotle).
Anti-Mechanistic View: Rejected the “stimulus-response” (S-R) mechanical explanation. They argued that organization exists between stimulus and response, making behavior intelligent.
Opposition to Structuralism: Disagreed with the “brick and mortar” concept where elements are simply bound by association.
Perception Theory: Perception is always related to the “total situation” or “field,” including the object, viewer, background, and previous experiences.

            Example: When looking at a tree, the mind perceives a “tree” as a single pattern (gestalt), even though it consists of colors, forms, and brightness.
        

3. Human Behaviour and “Insight”

Human behavior is an intelligent process consisting of three sequential steps:

1 Perception: Perceiving the situation as a whole.
2 Evaluation: Judging relationships between various factors involved.
3 Action: Taking an immediate decision and behaving accordingly.

4. Merits and Contributions to Education

Curriculum Design: Subject matter is organized as a unified whole with cohesiveness among subjects.
Teaching Methodology: Material is presented as an organized whole before proceeding to individual parts.
Inter-disciplinary Approach: Emphasis on connecting different disciplines in education.
Motivation and Goals: Education must have clear-cut objectives linked to the learner’s motives.
Intelligent Problem Solving: Learning is a cognitive task based on ability, not mechanical processes.
Educational Research: Focused on organizational climate, group dynamics, and institutional planning.
Collaborative Effort: Stresses the combined effort of teachers, parents, and administrators.

5. Primary Areas of Focus

Perception theory
Creativity
Thinking

Psychoanalysis Study Notes

5. SCHOOL OF PSYCHOANALYSIS

Also known as “Depth Psychology”

1. The Foundation by Sigmund Freud

Origins: Psychoanalysis was the brain-child of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), a Viennese physician.
Theoretical Stance: It emerged as a movement contrary to structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism, and gestaltism.
Key Book: “Interpretation of Dreams”.
The Three Stages of Mind:

• Id

• Ego

• Super Ego
The Psyche: Focuses on the conscious, sub-conscious, and unconscious behavior.
Human Instincts:

• Eros (Life Instinct)

• Thanatos (Death Instinct)
Complexes: Oedipus and Electra Complexes.
Clinical Analysis: Freud analyzed everyday phenomena to understand the unconscious, including:

• Forgetfulness

• Jokes

• Mispronunciation

• Dreams Analysis

2. Later Developments (1902 onwards)

Association for development was formed in 1902. Two major off-shoots emerged:

Alfred Adler (1870–1937): Established Individual Psychology. He substituted Freud’s emphasis on the sex urge with:
- • Power-seeking motives
- • Self-assertion
- • The concept of “Life-style”
Carl Jung (1875–1961): Established Analytical Psychology. He replaced the sex urge with the more comprehensive term:
- • Libido (defined as the “life urge”)

3. Neo-Freudians and Modern Evolution

Notable Members: Anna Freud, Karen Horney, Harry Stack Sullivan, Erich Fromm, Erik Erickson, and Heinz Hartmann.
Major Shift: These researchers modified the traditional psycho-analytical approach by playing down the role of sex and stressing the role of society.
Lasting Contributions: Psychoanalysis remains memorable for exploring:

• Concept of repression

• Catharsis

• Psycho-sexual development

• Structure of the psyche

Modern Psychology Notes

Recent Trends & Schools of Psychology

A Comprehensive Study of Humanism and Transpersonal Perspectives

Core School

Humanism (Humanist Psychology)

This school emphasizes the unique value of human beings, viewing them not as machines or victims of internal conflict, but as purposeful beings capable of self-direction.

Founders/Key Contributors: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers (1908-1970). Other eminent workers include Rollo May, Arthur Combs, and Gordon Allport.
Key Theory: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
Primary Focus Areas:
- Individual’s free will and freedom of choice.
- Personal growth and unique goals.
- Self-actualization and personal fulfillment.

Abraham Maslow

Carl Rogers

Gordon Allport

Latest Approach

Transpersonal Psychology

Focuses on personal experiences that transcend ordinary existence. It is considered one of the latest approaches in contemporary psychology.

Core Concept: Harnessing an individual’s fullest potential through self-actualization, a concept rooted in Maslow’s work.
Subject Area: Studies altered states of awareness, including how we feel and think during:
- Sleep or deep concentration.
- Moments of great excitement or happiness.
- States of severe stress or distress.
Induction Methods: These states can be induced via yoga, transcendental meditation, religious conversations, and occasionally specific drugs.

Contemporary Trend

Recent Trend: Synthesis of Schools

Modern psychology has shifted from proving different schools (like Behaviorism or Gestaltism) wrong to an eclectic approach.

The Eclectic Approach: Accepting that various viewpoints help in studying complex human behavior by highlighting different aspects.
Major Forces: While Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis were the traditional “major forces,” modern psychology now integrates Humanist, Transpersonal, and Cognitive psychology.
Philosophy: Moves away from the “machine-like” explanation of behavior to finding personal meaning in existence.

Cognitive Psychology & Constructivism Notes

1. Cognitive Psychology

Foundations & Themes

Emergence: Resulted from a wave of intellectualism focusing on man’s higher cognitive abilities.
Roots: Discovered in the cognitive outlook of Gestaltists who advocated overall mental functioning over mechanistic approaches.
The “White-Box” Theory: Postulates that internal processes are the primary subject matter of psychology.
Contrast with Behaviorism: Behaviorism is often called “Black-Box” theory as it only considers input (S) and output (R) without looking at what happens in between.

Core Focus Areas

Cognitive Psychology focuses on Mind, Thinking, and Knowledge.

Studies complex functions: Thinking, memory, language, development, perception, and imagery.
Higher Mental Functions: Peeps into insight, creativity, and problem-solving.
Information Processing: Thinking is viewed as the processing of information.

The Behavioural Mechanism (Model)

Input: Whatever is conveyed through stimuli in the environment.
Process: The cognitive functioning of the human mind.
Output/Product: The result of that cognitive functioning.

Key Figures

Miller & Jerome Bruner

Established the Center for Cognition in the 1960s.

Edward Tolman

Focused on learning and creative functioning; suggested organisms set up mental hypotheses to solve problems.

Jean Piaget

Studied development of cognitive abilities in children based on biological readiness.

2. Constructivism

Core Definition

            Theory stating that learners construct knowledge rather than just passively taking in information.
        

Child as Constructor: The child is viewed as the active “constructor of knowledge”.
The “Little Scientist”: A term used by Piaget to describe children exploring their world.

Types of Constructivism

                Jean Piaget

                Radical Constructivist

                Lev Vygotsky

                Social Constructivist

Radical Constructivism: Focuses on the individual’s internal construction of reality.
Social Constructivism: Focuses on how knowledge is constructed through social interaction.

Psychology Schools Summary

Summary: Systems & Schools of Psychology

Key Facts and Educational Implications

School & Founders	Key Facts & Concepts	Educational Contributions
Structuralism W. Wundt, E.B. Titchener	Oldest school (Germany). Focus: Units of consciousness. Method: Introspection.	Introduced scientific methods and introspection for the study of behavior.
Functionalism William James, John Dewey	Focus: Mind as a tool for adjustment. Habits as nervous system functions.	Advocated for functional curricula and scientific methods for objective study.
Behaviorism J.B. Watson, Pavlov, Skinner	“Black-Box” theory. Focus: Overt/observable behavior. Environment over heredity.	Emphasized behavioral modification, reinforcement (rewards), and environmental organization.
Gestalt Psychology Wertheimer, Kohler, Koffka	“The whole is different from the sum of its parts”. Concept: Insight. Opposition to S-R mechanism.	Inter-disciplinary approach; curriculum reflects unity; teaching from “whole to parts”.
Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud, Adler, Jung	“Depth Psychology”. Id, Ego, Super Ego. Unconscious mind and libido.	Highlighted importance of formative years and the role of the subconscious in learning.
Humanism Maslow, Carl Rogers	Focus: Free will and self-actualization. Man is a purposeful being.	Shifted focus to personal meaning, unique goals, and the search for values.
Cognitive Psychology Piaget, Miller, Bruner	“White-Box” theory (internal processes). Thinking as Information Processing.	Stressed higher cognitive abilities, memory, and problem-solving in learning.
Constructivism Piaget, Vygotsky	Learner constructs their own knowledge. Child as “Little Scientist”.	Encourages active learning rather than passive intake of information.