Methods of Educational Psychology
Primary Approaches to Observation
- Introspection: Looking within at one’s own behavior.
- Naturalistic Observation: Observing events under natural conditions.
- Experimentation: Recording behavioral events under controlled conditions.
- Normative/Field Survey: Conducted outside laboratories in real-life settings.
- Case Study / Psychoanalytic: Using case histories or interpreting unconscious behavior.
- Clinical Method: Used for diagnosis and treatment of behavioral problems.
- Psycho-physical Method: Using physical devices to measure psychological experiences.
1. The Introspection Method
This is the oldest known method for the study of behavior. The word comes from Latin: “intro” (within/inward) and “spiere” (to look).
Definition: A sort of self-observation where one perceives, analyses, and reports one’s own feelings and mental acts during the course of a mental act. For example, determining what one felt during a state of anxiety or anger.
✅ Merits
- It is simple and readily available as mental processes are always present.
- Provides direct and immediate insight without extra expenditure on materials or apparatus.
- Allows covert experiences (inner thoughts and feelings) to be revealed.
❌ Drawbacks and Limitations
- Transience: Mental processes change continuously. By the time one begins to introspect, the original mental state (like anger) has often passed.
- Lack of Reliability: Results lack communicability and repeatability; reports on sensations (like the color green) differ between individuals.
- Subject-Object Conflict: The mind tries to divide itself into the observer and the observed, which are actually the same, affecting validity.
- Limited Scope: Cannot be applied to children, animals, or abnormal human beings; it only works for normal adults.
Conclusion
The introspection method is based on self-speculation and lacks scientific precision. It cannot be taken as a sufficient single method for psychological studies and must be supported by objective scientific findings.2. The Observation Method
Unlike introspection (looking inward), this method focuses on perceiving behavior “as it is” in the real world.
✅ Merits of Observation
- Natural & Flexible: Behavior is observed in day-to-day life settings.
- Reliable & Verifiable: Results can be checked and confirmed by other investigators.
- Wide Scope: Especially suitable for studying children, habits, and personality traits where introspection is impossible.
- Clinical Use: Helps psychologists collect data on abnormal behavior in natural environments.
❌ Drawbacks & Limitations
- Internal Secrecy: One cannot observe what is happening in the mind of others; a person may be expert at hiding true feelings.
- Subjectivity of Observer: The observer’s own interests, prejudices, and degree of care can distort the results.
- Lack of Replicability: A natural situation (like a specific crowd behavior) may only occur once.
- Cause-Effect Difficulty: It is hard to establish if one phenomenon (like poverty) is the direct cause of another (like delinquent behavior).
Introspection vs. Observation
| Feature | Introspection Method | Observation Method |
|---|---|---|
| Direction | Looking inward at one’s own mind. | Looking outward at others’ behavior. |
| Objectivity | Subjective; lacks reliability and validity. | More objective; results can be verified. |
| Subject Scope | Only normal human adults. | Children, animals, and abnormal beings. |
| Nature of Study | Direct insight into mental acts. | Indirect inference of mental acts via external signs. |
📌 Final Conclusion
No single method is sufficient. The Introspection Method provides unique inner knowledge but lacks scientific precision. The Observation Method is more scientific and objective but can be distorted by observer bias. Both must be supported by other reliable psychological methods.
3. Experimental Method
1. Introduction
The Experimental Method is considered the most scientific and objective method of studying behavior. The word ‘experiment’ comes from the Latin word experimentum, meaning ‘a trial’ or ‘test’.
- Objective: To establish cause-and-effect relationships.
- Process: Observations made under pre-arranged or rigidly controlled conditions.
2. Key Features
- Two-Person Requirement: Involves an experimenter and a subject (the person being observed).
- Living Organisms: Unlike physical sciences, these experiments are conducted on living beings.
- Control of Variables: Eliminating irrelevant factors to isolate the causal relationship between phenomena.
3. Understanding Variables
- Independent Variable: The “Cause.” This is the variable the experimenter changes or varies (e.g., Intelligence, Heat, or Feedback).
- Dependent Variable: The “Effect.” The subsequent change produced by the independent variable (e.g., Academic performance or Test scores).
- Intervening Variables: Other factors that impact achievement besides intelligence (e.g., study habits, socio-economic status, health). In experiments, these must be controlled or made constant.
4. Laboratory Set-ups
Experiments can be conducted in labs, classrooms, or natural environments. Famous examples include:
- Thorndike: Cats
- Pavlov: Dogs
- Skinner: Rats and Pigeons
5. Case Study: Effect of Knowledge of Results
Title: Effect of knowledge of results on performance.
Hypothesis: Knowledge of results acts as an incentive or motivating force for improvement in performance.
The Task: Drawing a straight line of 12 cm while being tested under two conditions:
- WKR (Without Knowledge of Results): Subject is not told how accurate they are.
- WR (With Knowledge of Results): Subject is told the measurement after each trial.
Table 3.1: Observation Record (Length in cm)
| Trial Nos. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| WKR | 10.1 | 9.8 | 10.4 | 11.3 | 11.8 | 12.5 | 10.4 | 10.8 | 11.4 | 12.7 |
| WR | 10.2 | 11.5 | 11.8 | 12.8 | 12.6 | 11.9 | 12.2 | 12.0 | 12.2 | 12.1 |
Table 3.2: Interpretation (Error from 12cm)
| Trial Nos. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Diff (WKR) | 1.9 | 2.2 | 1.6 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 0.5 | 1.6 | 1.2 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 11.4 |
| Diff (WR) | 1.8 | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.8 | 0.6 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 4.5 |
6. Conclusion & Inference
The data shows that the total error without knowledge (11.4 cm) is significantly higher than with knowledge (4.5 cm).
Conclusion: Performance improves through feedback (knowledge of results).
Experiments Outside the Laboratory Set-up
In Educational Psychology, experiments often require specific designs to control variables and measure effects accurately outside a standard lab.
1. Experimental Designs
1. The Control Test (Single-Group Design)
Key ConceptA single individual or group is observed first under normal conditions and then under changed conditions. Conclusions are drawn by comparing the differences.
- Example (Fear Stimulus): Measuring heart rate and respiration under normal conditions vs. exposure to fear stimuli (e.g., a snake or loud noise).
- Example (Drugs): Testing IQ after a placebo (sugar capsule) vs. after a drug (e.g., caffeine or brahmi).
- Drawback: Subject to the positive practice effect—previous exposure can influence subsequent responses.
2. Control-Group Design
ImprovementTwo separate, “equated” groups (matched by age, sex, intelligence) participate simultaneously.
- Experimental Group: Receives the actual treatment (e.g., drug capsule).
- Control Group: Receives a placebo (e.g., sugar capsule).
- Differences in final scores are attributed solely to the treatment, minimizing practice effects.
3. Multiple-Group Design
Used when more than two groups are needed to rule out alternative explanations like “positive transfer”.
Example: Effect of English on learning French| Group | Subject Held (August) | Test Held (February) |
|---|---|---|
| A (Experimental) | English | French |
| B (Control) | No test | French |
| C (Control) | Mathematics | French |
| D (Control) | Russian | French |
Only if Group A significantly outperforms B, C, and D can we infer that learning English specifically facilitates learning French.
4. Designs Involving Rotation
Used to control the serial effects of fatigue or practice by rotating the sequence of stimulating situations.
- A B B A Order: Half the measures for condition A, all for B, then the remaining half for A.
- Group Rotation: Group 1 receives treatment A then B; Group 2 receives treatment B then A. Results are then combined and compared.
2. Limitations of the Experimental Method
- Artificiality: Rigidly controlled conditions create artificial environments; behavior studied here may differ from spontaneous or natural behavior.
- Control Difficulties: It is extremely difficult to isolate and control all intervening variables (e.g., health, mood, home environment).
- Generalization Issues: Experiments often use animals (cats, dogs, birds). It is debatable whether results obtained from animals are applicable to humans.
- Limited Scope: Not all psychological problems can be studied via experimentation due to the diverse nature of the subject matter.
- Dynamic Nature of Behavior: Human behavior is not mechanical. Stimuli like anger or fear may not yield uniform responses every time.
- Resource Heavy: The method is costly and time-consuming, requiring specialized knowledge and skills.
4. The Differential Method
The Differential Method is based on the study of individual differences. It is also known as the Normative Survey Method, the Field Survey Method, or the Statistical Method.
Key Characteristics:
- No Intentional Manipulation: Unlike experiments, the investigator cannot intentionally change the variables (e.g., you cannot manipulate a person’s intelligence for a study).
- Statistical Basis: Relies heavily on statistical techniques to arrive at conclusions about individual or group differences.
Main Approaches:
- Correlation Approach: Studies people as they are, without changing conditions, to find relationships between traits (e.g., intelligence and academic achievement).
- Field Survey Approach: Discovers characteristic patterns among individuals by taking adequate samples from a population (e.g., job satisfaction among different categories of teachers).
- Longitudinal Approach: Studies differences in an individual or group over a long span of time (e.g., following an infant’s growth through various life stages).
- Cross-sectional Approach: Studies different individuals of varying ages simultaneously to determine growth and development patterns.