Introduction

BRICS, representing 49.5% of the world’s population, is a key forum of the Global South. India plays a central role in advancing multipolarity, equitable growth, and institutional reform.

2. Strategic and Political Role

Voice of Global South: Advocates equity and inclusive global governance.
Reform Agenda: Pushes for reform of BRETTON WOODS INSTITUTIONS : IMF and World Bank.
Alternative to West: Positions BRICS as a counterweight to G7-led systems.

3. Institutional and Economic Role

Fortaleza Declaration (2014): Supported creation of the New Development Bank (NDB) and Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA).
Ufa Declaration (2015): Broadened agenda to trade, energy, security.
Payment System: Backs BRICS payment system as an alternative to SWIFT.

India’s 2021 Chairship Initiatives (Legacy in 2025)

India’s chairship in 2021 brought several “firsts” that continue to shape BRICS cooperation in 2025:

Health Diplomacy: Hosted BRICS Digital Health Summit to promote digital solutions.
Water Security: Convened the 1st Water Ministers’ Meeting.
Counter-Terrorism: Led adoption of the BRICS Counter-Terrorism Action Plan.
Sustainable Growth: Launched the BRICS Alliance for Green Tourism.
Agriculture: Operationalized the BRICS Agricultural Research Platform for food security.
Science & Technology: Signed the Remote Sensing Satellite Constellation Agreement for space data sharing.

Cultural and People-to-People Role

BRICS Parliamentary Forum: Enhances political dialogue and democratic engagement.
BRICS Academic Forum: Fosters research, innovation, and knowledge sharing.
BRICS Film Festival: Promotes cultural diplomacy and soft power.

6. Conclusion

India in 2025 is an agenda-setter and bridge-builder in BRICS—driving reforms, promoting sustainable growth, and strengthening South-South cooperation. Its initiatives in finance, counter-terrorism, and culture position BRICS as a credible alternative to Western institutions and a champion of the Global South.

In 2025, India’s role in BRICS is multidimensional—driving reforms in finance, counter-terrorism, and sustainable development, while also deepening cultural and academic exchanges.

1. Clean Energy and Climate Initiatives

International Solar Alliance (ISA)
One Sun One World One Grid (OSOWOG)
Global Biofuels Alliance
LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment)
- India’s global campaign to promote sustainable lifestyles and environmental consciousness among individuals and communities worldwide.

2. Disaster Resilience and Infrastructure

Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI)

3. Biodiversity and Wildlife Conservation

International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA)

4. Health and Traditional Medicine

One Earth One Health
Global Centre for Traditional Medicine (GCTM)

5. Cultural, Educational and Heritage Promotion

International Buddhist University

6. Agriculture and Food Security

Global Millets Forum

SCO

PM Modi OUTLINED INDIA-S ROLE IN SCO VIA “SECURE” framework – Security, Economic cooperation, Connectivity, Unity, Respect for sovereignty, and Environmental protection.

Security

India stresses collective action against terrorism, radicalization, and drug trafficking.
Example: Participation in SCO’s Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) and highlighting the issue of cross-border terrorism.

Economic Cooperation

India supports fair trade, investment, and energy partnerships with SCO states.
Example: Promotion of the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) and interest in Central Asian energy markets.

Connectivity

Advocates regional connectivity projects that respect sovereignty.
Example: Use of Chabahar Port in Iran to access Central Asia, while refusing to join China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).

Unity

Calls for unity among SCO members to tackle shared challenges like terrorism and economic development.
Example: India’s emphasis on joint military exercises like Peace Mission under SCO.

Respect for Sovereignty & Integrity

India insists that connectivity and cooperation must not undermine sovereignty.
Example: Its opposition to China’s China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), which passes through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir.

Environmental Protection

India advocates sustainable growth and regional cooperation on climate and energy.
Example: Hosting an SCO Digital Exhibition on Shared Buddhist Heritage (2021) and promoting International Solar Alliance as part of green energy collaboration.

Future Outlook

India can use SCO to:
- Push for regional connectivity through Iran & Central Asia.
- Enhance energy security (oil & gas imports).
- Promote a counter-terrorism narrative at regional level.
- Position itself as a bridge between Eurasia and South Asia

SCO provides platform for India’s “Connect Central Asia” policy and access to energy resources.

India’s SCO journey progressed from observer status (2005) to full membership (2017) at Astana Summit, representing strategic engagement with Eurasian multilateralism.

India’s role in the SCO represents a calibrated engagement strategy that seeks to maximize regional cooperation benefits while preserving strategic autonomy and core national interests.

1. GSOMIA (2002) – Information Security

Ensures safe exchange of classified military information between India and the U.S.
Benefit:
- Enables transfer of advanced U.S. defense technology (e.g., aircraft & drones).
- Improves intelligence-sharing on threats (like terrorism networks, Chinese military activities).
- Real-life use: Access to sensitive tech in platforms like C-17 Globemaster and P-8I surveillance aircraft.

2. LEMOA (2016) – Logistics Support

Allows reciprocal access to each other’s bases for fuel, supplies, and repairs.
Benefit:
- Extends India’s operational reach in the Indian Ocean & Indo-Pacific.
- Cuts costs and boosts readiness during joint operations.
- Real-life use: Indian Navy ships can refuel at Diego Garcia, Guam, Djibouti, while U.S. can access Indian bases like Andaman & Nicobar.

3. COMCASA (2018) – Secure Communication

Provides India with encrypted communication equipment & systems.
Benefit:
- Enables real-time intelligence sharing on enemy movements.
- Allows India to fully use advanced U.S. platforms like P-8I (submarine hunter), C-130, and drones.
- Real-life use: Tracking Chinese naval vessels in the Indian Ocean with high-accuracy, secure data links.

4. BECA (2020) – Geospatial & Satellite Data

Gives India access to U.S. geospatial maps, satellite imagery, and navigation data.
Benefit:
- Improves missile accuracy, precision strikes, and border surveillance.
- Enhances ability to monitor Chinese build-up in Ladakh or terror launch pads in PoK.
- Real-life use: During Doklam/Ladakh standoff, such data strengthens India’s situational awareness.

Summary

GSOMIA → Tech transfer & info security
LEMOA → Global reach for Navy & Air Force
COMCASA → Real-time, secure comms with U.S. systems
BECA → Precision strikes, surveillance, mapping enemy positions

✅ Together → They give India eyes (BECA), ears (COMCASA), legs (LEMOA), and brain (GSOMIA) for modern warfare.

India–US foundational defense agreements):

GSOMIA – General Security of Military Information Agreement → 2002
LEMOA – Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement → 2016
COMCASA – Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement → 2018
BECA – Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement → 2020

India–US Defense Cooperation (Crisp Notes)

Defense Trade – $119.42 bn; major imports: C-17, Apache, P-8I.
4 Foundational Agreements – GSOMIA (2002), LEMOA (2016), COMCASA (2018), BECA (2020).
Joint Exercises – MALABAR (navy, Quad), YUDH ABHYAS (army), RED FLAG (air force).
2+2 Dialogue – Regular FM & DM meetings; Indo-Pacific focus.
STA-1 Status (2018) – Easier access to U.S. military tech.: Strategic Trade Authorization Tier 1
Defense Industry – MoU on GE-414 jet engines for Tejas Mk2 (co-production).

India–US Cooperation (Beyond Defense)

1. Energy Cooperation

Civil Nuclear Deal (2008): Work begun for 6 AP1000 reactors by Westinghouse.
Climate & Clean Energy Agenda 2030 (2021): Joint push for renewables.
Global Biofuels Alliance (2023): Promote sustainable transport fuels.

2. Strategic Cooperation

Counter-Terrorism Initiative (2010): Info sharing, capacity building.
Quad (with Japan & Australia): Democratic coalition in Indo-Pacific.
Pivot to Asia Policy: U.S. supports India as hedge to China.
I2U2 (India–Israel–UAE–U.S.): Cooperation on food security, energy, and tech.

3. Science & Technology Cooperation

iCET (2022): Joint work on AI, quantum, semiconductors.
Critical Minerals Partnership: Secure global energy/mineral supply chains.
Space Collaboration:
- NASA to train ISRO astronauts → joint ISS mission (2024).
- Artemis Accords: Deep space exploration partnership.
- NISAR Satellite (NASA–ISRO): Monitoring ecosystems & climate change.

Frictional Points in India–US Relations

1. Trade and Tariff Disputes

No FTA; pending Bilateral Investment Treaty.
U.S. revoked GSP benefits (2019) citing “inequitable access.”
Disputes on data localization, e-commerce, and price caps on stents/medical devices.

2. Strategic Autonomy vs. Convergence

India’s multi-alignment clashes with U.S. expectations (e.g., neutral stance on Russia–Ukraine war).
Purchase of Russian S-400s → risk of U.S. CAATSA sanctions (waiver granted).

3. Human Rights Criticism

U.S. reports (USCIRF, State Dept.) flag issues of religious freedom, press freedom, minority rights.
Perceived as interference in domestic affairs.

4. Visa and Immigration Issues

Restrictive visa policies; H-1B fees increased 2050% (from $10 to $215).
Long green card backlogs.
Exploitation concerns for Indian students & IT workers.

5. Climate & Trade Linkages

Disagreements over carbon border taxes, clean energy financing, climate equity.
India stresses historical responsibility of West.

6. Digital Sovereignty & Tech

U.S. firms (Google, Meta, Amazon) vs. India’s data localization laws.
Divergence on cross-border data flows and Big Tech regulation.

7. Differing Geopolitical Priorities

India focuses on Pakistan, China, Afghanistan, while U.S. prioritizes other theatres.
U.S. withdrawal from Afghanistan (2021) worsened India’s regional security concerns.

8. Iran & West Asia Policy

India’s Chabahar Port project slowed by U.S. sanctions on Iran.
Example: Gabbaro Ship Services Pvt Ltd (India) sanctioned by U.S.

India–Russia Areas of Cooperation

1. Defence & Strategic Cooperation

Russia remains India’s largest defense partner (~45% imports).
Key platforms: S-400 Triumf, INS Vikramaditya, BrahMos missile, AK-203 rifles.
Regular military exercises: INDRA (Army/Navy), Avi-INDRA (Air Force).
Focus on joint production & technology transfer under Make in India.

2. Nuclear Energy

Cooperation in Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant (Tamil Nadu).
Long-term roadmap: 10 more reactors under IAEA safeguards.

3. Space Cooperation

USSR launched Aryabhata (1975), India’s first satellite.
Ongoing ISRO–Roscosmos ties: Gaganyaan astronaut training in Russia.

4. Trade & Economic Ties

Bilateral trade crossed $50 bn (2023–24); driven by oil, defense, fertilizers.
Oil imports: Russia supplies ~40% of India’s crude (2024).
Eastern Economic Forum: India offered $1 bn credit for Russian Far East.
Exploring rupee–rouble trade, INSTC, digital payments.
Eastern Maritime Corridor: Direct Vladivostok–Chennai sea route.

5. Energy Security

Russian firms (Rosneft, Gazprom) investing in India.
India invests in Sakhalin-I, Vankor oilfields.
Cooperation in LNG, coal, civil nuclear fuel.
St. Petersburg Declaration: Joint Arctic hydrocarbon exploration.

6. Multilateral Cooperation

Common platforms: BRICS, SCO, RIC, G20, UN.
Russia supports India’s UNSC permanent seat & NSG bid.

7. Cultural & Educational Linkages

15,000+ Indian students (medicine) in Russian universities.
Cultural exchanges via ICCR.
2025 declared India–Russia Cultural Year.

Conclusion

India–Russia ties remain a special and privileged strategic partnership, spanning defense, energy, trade, space, and culture. Despite global realignments, Russia remains crucial for India’s energy security, defense modernization, and multipolar diplomacy.

Friction Points in India–Russia Relations

1. Overdependence on Defense Supplies

India relies on Russia for ~45% of arms imports.
Delays in delivery & spare parts (e.g., S-400 systems) affect India’s operational readiness.
Push for diversification (U.S., France, Israel) reduces Moscow’s monopoly.

2. Russia–China Proximity

Growing Russia–China strategic partnership challenges India’s interests.
Joint Russia–China military exercises near India’s borders raise security concerns.

3. Divergences on Indo-Pacific

India promotes Indo-Pacific strategy with U.S. & Quad, while Russia criticizes it as “divisive.”
Moscow prefers Eurasian/continental focus, not maritime.

4. Trade Imbalances & Rupee–Rouble Issues

Bilateral trade skewed heavily in Russia’s favor due to oil imports.
Persistent issues in settlement of payments under rupee–rouble system.

5. Limited Economic Diversification

Cooperation mostly in energy & defense, while areas like IT, services, and innovation remain underexplored.

6. West’s Sanctions on Russia

U.S./EU sanctions complicate India’s energy investments (Sakhalin, Vankor) and financial transactions.
Indian companies risk secondary sanctions (e.g., Chabahar-like dilemmas).

7. Ukraine War Impact

India maintains neutrality, buying discounted Russian oil.
But prolonged war complicates India’s balancing between Russia and West.

8. Declining Soft Power Influence

Russian language & culture less popular among Indian youth compared to English/Western influence.
Indian students face uncertainties in Russian universities post-sanctions.
In an age of “strategic hedging,” India’s Russia policy must reflect realism, resilience, and respect for historical friendship.

Significance and Challenges of INSTC for India

1. Geopolitical Significance

Strategic Diversification of Trade Routes → Reduces overdependence on the Suez Canal & Strait of Malacca, strengthening India’s strategic autonomy.
Counter to China’s BRI → Provides India’s alternative to the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), pushing for a multipolar connectivity order.
Leverage in West Asia → Enhances presence in Iran (Chabahar Port) and the Caucasus, boosting India’s role in regional geopolitics.
Caspian Region Presence → Builds influence in an emerging hub of energy, logistics, and multilateral cooperation.

2. Geoeconomic Significance

India–Russia Trade Boost → Cuts Mumbai–Moscow cargo transit by 40% (time) and 30% (cost).
Support to Exports → Benefits pharma, textiles, machinery, aligned with Make in India & export targets.
Energy Security → Easier imports of oil, gas, and uranium from Russia, Iran, Central Asia.

3. Connectivity Significance

Access to Eurasia & Central Asia → Connects to Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, bypassing Pakistan.
Chabahar Integration → Complements India’s investment, positioning it as a regional hub.
Logistics Modernization → Encourages multimodal rail-road-sea-air systems, aligning with PM Gati Shakti & National Logistics Policy.

4. Challenges to Full Utilization

Limited Funding → No major support from World Bank, ADB.
Geopolitical Instability → U.S. sanctions on Iran & Russia; Armenia–Azerbaijan conflict; terrorism in Central Asia.
Customs & Transit Hurdles → Differing regimes, weak digital tracking, bureaucratic delays.
Infrastructure Gaps → Poor port, rail, road connectivity in Iran, Central Asia, western India.
Currency/Payment Issues → Sanctions limit SWIFT; rupee–rouble trade underdeveloped.
High Costs & Awareness Gap → Transshipment delays, storage costs, insurance risk premiums.
Competition → China’s BRI & CPEC offer faster/cheaper alternatives.
Coordination Complexity → 13+ member states → delays in security, tariffs, customs harmonization.

5. Conclusion

For India, INSTC is a geopolitical counter to BRI, a geo-economic lifeline to Russia & Central Asia, and a connectivity booster via Chabahar. Yet, its potential is constrained by sanctions, funding shortages, infrastructure gaps, and rival projects. Realizing its promise will require multilateral financing, harmonized protocols, and strong Indian diplomatic investment.

INDIA ISREL

Harsh V. Pant observes, “India’s engagement with Israel reflects a new realism in its foreign policy rooted in national interest.”

India–Israel Relations: Cooperation vs. Frictions

Area	Cooperation	Frictions
Geopolitics	Strategic alignment in West Asia, counter-terrorism, I2U2 projects (e.g., 300 MW hybrid energy in Gujarat).	Divergence on Palestine policy → India supports two-state solution, abstained on Gaza UNGA (2023).
Trade & Economy	Trade at $10.1 bn (2022–23); Israeli VC firms in agri-tech, clean energy.	Trade skewed to diamonds & defense (70%); FTA talks since 2010 still inconclusive.
Defence & Security	4th largest arms supplier; Barak-8 missile system, drones, intel-sharing post-26/11.	Limited tech transfer; delays & IPR issues in co-development (Barak-8, Heron).
Multilateral Forums	Support in UN, ISA, WIPO; Israel joined ISA on India’s initiative.	India’s balancing act with Gulf & Iran limits overt alignment.
S&T / Innovation	I4F Fund for AI, quantum, water tech; ISRO–ISA cooperation.	Collaboration modest compared to India–US/EU; few joint patents & startups.
Agriculture	30+ Centres of Excellence; Netafim’s micro-irrigation; Villages of Excellence (2022).	None major, but scale limited; projects still pilot-stage in many states.
Society & Politics	Cultural & educational exchanges growing; diaspora ties.	Weak people-to-people connect; domestic criticism from minority/left groups during Gaza crises.

India-China Territorial Dispute Critical Examination (2017, 8 Marks)

Dispute Overview and Sectors

The India-China border dispute spans 3,488 kilometers across three sectors with fundamentally different legal and historical foundations. Western Sector (Ladakh) involves 38,000 square kilometers of Aksai Chin, controlled by China but claimed by India based on Johnson Line (1860s) versus Chinese preference for McDonald Line (1890s). Eastern Sector covers 90,000 square kilometers of Arunachal Pradesh, administered by India but claimed by China, centering on McMahon Line legitimacy from 1914 Simla Convention. Middle Sector presents relatively minor disputes across Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand boundaries.23 24 25

Historical Roots and Legal Framework

Colonial-era boundary demarcations create core disputes. China rejects McMahon Line arguing Tibet lacked authority to sign 1914 Simla Convention. The 1890 Convention of Calcutta between China and Britain remains disputed regarding tri-junction interpretations. China’s 1962 war established current Line of Actual Control (LAC), but no mutually agreed boundary exists along certain stretches.25 6 23

Recent Confrontations and Escalations

2013 Depsang Incursion: 21-day military standoff demonstrated persistent boundary management challenges. 2017 Doklam Crisis: 73-day face-off over Chinese road construction tested both nations’ resolve. 2020 Galwan Clash: First deadly confrontation since 1975 resulted in 20 Indian and 4 Chinese military casualties. 2022 Tawang Incident: Border skirmishes continued despite diplomatic dialogue efforts.24 26 6

Strategic and Military Implications

Infrastructure Competition: Both nations build roads, bridges, and military facilities along LAC, creating friction points. Strategic Vulnerabilities: Chinese control of Aksai Chin threatens Ladakh while potential Chinese advance could sever India’s northeast. Military Preparedness: Permanent deployment of 50,000+ troops on each side maintains high tension levels.26 7 24

Diplomatic Management Mechanisms

Special Representatives Dialogue: 29 rounds of talks achieved limited progress due to trust deficit. Military Commander Meetings: Regular interactions prevent escalation but resolve no fundamental issues. Confidence Building Measures: 2024 Depsang-Demchok patrol agreement represents latest disengagement effort.