Bhutan: The Evolution of Sovereignty (1865–1949)
The relationship between Bhutan and British India was defined by a shift from military conflict to a strategic alliance, eventually transitioning into a unique partnership with independent India.
- Duars War (1865): The conflict arose from disputes over the Duars (mountain passes), a fertile strip of land at the foothills of the Himalayas. The British victory led to the Treaty of Sinchula, under which Bhutan ceded the Duars in exchange for an annual subsidy, effectively giving the British control over this economically vital region.
- Protectorate Status: Following the war, Bhutan became a protectorate, with the British guiding its external affairs while allowing internal autonomy.
- Treaty of Punakha (1910): This treaty further formalized British influence. Bhutan agreed to be guided by British advice in its foreign relations, while the British pledged non-interference in Bhutan’s internal administration. This was a strategic move by the British to secure a buffer against Chinese influence.
The Anglo-Nepalese War (1814–1816)
The war was triggered by border disputes in the Terai region. Despite the Gorkhas’ legendary bravery and superior knowledge of mountain warfare, the British eventually gained the upper hand due to their superior resources and artillery. The conflict concluded with the Treaty of Sugauli in 1816, which redefined the boundaries of the Himalayan kingdom.
Myanmar (Burma): The Road to Annexation
Known anciently as Brahmadesh, Burma was a primary target for the British due to its vast forest resources (especially teak), its potential as a market for British textiles, and its strategic position in checking French influence in Southeast Asia. Over the course of the 19th century, three successive wars dismantled the Burmese Empire.
The Three Anglo-Burmese Wars
- First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–26): Triggered by Burmese expansion into Assam and Manipur. It concluded with the Treaty of Yandabo (1826).
- Territorial Loss: Burma ceded Arakan, Tenasserim, and Assam.
- Sovereignty: Abandoned claims on Cachar and Jaintia; recognized Manipur as independent.
- Presence: Accepted a British Resident and a commercial treaty.
- Second Burma War (1852): Driven primarily by the commercial grievances of British merchants in Rangoon. The British annexed Lower Burma, including the strategic Pegu province and the port of Rangoon.
- Third Burma War (1885): Prompted by the fear that King Thibaw was forming a secret alliance with the French. Under Viceroy Lord Dufferin, the British launched a swift campaign, annexed the remainder of Upper Burma, and exiled the king.
Administrative Evolution
- 1886: Burma was initially administered as a part of the British Indian Empire.
- 1937: Following the Government of India Act (1935), Burma was officially separated from British India and made a distinct crown colony.
Tibet: The “Great Game” and British Diplomacy
British policy toward Tibet at the turn of the 20th century was a classic manifestation of the “Great Game”—the strategic rivalry between the British and Russian Empires for supremacy in Central Asia. The British were deeply concerned that Russian influence in Lhasa would threaten the security of India’s northern frontiers.
Lord Curzon’s Intervention
Under the direction of Viceroy Lord Curzon, the British shifted from a policy of cautious diplomacy to active intervention. In 1903–1904, Curzon dispatched the Younghusband Expedition, a military mission led by Colonel Francis Younghusband. The expedition marched toward Lhasa, forcing the Tibetan government to the negotiating table.
The Treaty of Lhasa (1904)
The expedition culminated in the Treaty of Lhasa, which significantly tilted the regional balance of power in favor of the British:
- Frontier Security: Tibet officially agreed to respect the existing frontiers of Sikkim, preventing future border incursions.
- Trade and Influence: The treaty facilitated the opening of trade marts and ensured that no foreign power (specifically Russia) would be granted concessions or influence in Tibet without British consent.
- The Chumbi Valley: As a guarantee for the payment of a war indemnity and the fulfillment of treaty terms, the British Indian government occupied the Chumbi Valley—a strategic wedge of land between Bhutan and Sikkim. True to the agreement, the British evacuated the valley by 1907 after the conditions were met.
Afghanistan: The “Great Game” and Frontier Policies
The British approach to Afghanistan was rarely about direct colonization; instead, it was a high-stakes effort to maintain a buffer state against the perceived threat of Russian expansion toward India. This geopolitical struggle, known as the “Great Game,” led to significant shifts in British strategy depending on the Viceroy in power.
Key Policy Variations
The British oscillated between two major schools of thought:
- Forward Policy (Auckland & Lytton): A proactive, interventionist approach that sought to secure the frontier by establishing direct influence over Afghan politics and replacing hostile rulers.
- Masterly Inactivity (John Lawrence): A policy of non-interference. Lawrence believed that as long as there was no foreign (Russian) presence in Afghanistan, the British should avoid the cost and risk of military entanglement.
The Three Anglo-Afghan Wars
- First Anglo-Afghan War (1839–42): * Goal: Lord Auckland attempted to replace the ruler Dost Mohammad with the pro-British Shah Shuja.
- Outcome: It ended in a humiliating disaster. The British garrison was massacred during its retreat from Kabul, and Dost Mohammad eventually returned to power.
- Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–80): * Goal: Lord Lytton launched this war to counter Russian diplomatic gains in Kabul.
- Treaty of Gandamak (1879): The Afghan Amir (Yakub Khan) agreed to conduct foreign policy on British advice and accepted a Permanent British Resident at Kabul.
- Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919): * Outcome: Following the end of WWI and the rise of Afghan nationalism under Amanullah Khan, this brief conflict resulted in the Treaty of Rawalpindi. Afghanistan finally secured full independence from British control over its foreign affairs.
The Durand Line
To stabilize the volatile frontier, a boundary commission led by Sir Mortimer Durand drew the Durand Line in 1893. This line demarcated the spheres of influence between British India and Afghanistan. While it was confirmed as the de facto border, it remains a point of contention as it split the ethnic Pashtun population between the two territories.